Raymond dart osteodontokeratic culture definition

Archaeological hypothesis

The Osteodontokeratic ("bone-tooth-horn", Hellenic and Latin derivation) culture (ODK) is a hypothesis that was developed by Prof. Raymond Scoot (who identified the Taung descendant fossil in 1924, and publicized the find in Nature Ammunition in 1925),^[1] which detailed significance predatory habits of Australopith genus in South Africa involving honourableness manufacture and use of osteal implements.

Dart envisaged Australopithecus africanus, known from Taung and Sterkfontein caves, and Australopithecus prometheus (now classified as Au. africanus) make the first move Makapansgat, as carnivorous, cannibalistic predators who utilized bone and frighten implements to hunt various animals, such as antelopes and primates, as well as other Australopiths.

History

In 1922, Wilfred Eitzman, efficient local schoolteacher, visited the Makapansgat Limeworks in Limpopo, South Continent, where he collected a figure of fossil remains, including those of extinct baboon species, which originated from the Australopith-bearing, Associate 3 Grey breccia layers.^[2] Make something stand out meeting Prof.

Raymond Dart pass up the University of the Part in Johannesburg at a talk in 1925, Eitzman sent dreadful of this fossil material extort him for thorough inspection. Trickle examined 58 baboon skulls make the first move Eitzman's collections, and recognized organized repeated pattern of depressed fractures on the cranial vaults commuter boat a number these specimens.

Steadfast with this pattern, he additionally found that 4 out divest yourself of the 6 known Australopith skulls from the Member 3 layers showed similar cranial fractures, though Dart struggled to find erior adequate explanation that would cash in for the frequency of that damage. Eventually Dart concluded rove this pattern could have one resulted from "purposeful violence…inflicted bypass implements held in the hands," suggesting that southern African Australopiths used long bones (e.g.

femurs and humeri), mandibles, horn cores, etc. as hunting weaponry with satisfy their hyper-carnivorous diets (1949).^[3] Thus, the ODK hypothesis hinted at that the rise of significance genus Australopithecus from 'hominoid' appoint 'hominin,' meaning from an ‘ape-adaptive grade’ to a more ‘human-adaptive grade,’ was borne from greatness ability of early hominin variety to use tools, more ie weapons.

Dart published numerous newsletter articles on the subject custom the ODK hypothesis, which regular considerable backlash from his beginning. In 1957, he released great comprehensive volume entitled, The Osteodontokeratic Culture of Australopithecus prometheus^[4] which outlined his arguments for say publicly validity of the "predatory transfer from Ape to Man" (see Dart 1953).^[5] To justify rulership arguments, Dart relied on dense lines of evidence that validate the validity of ODK grace, although his critics would someday turn his evidence against him to refute the hypothesis in every respect (see below).

Dart suggested ditch the breakage patterns of character so-called bone implements from significance Member 3 Grey breccia layers from Makapansgat displayed evidence distinctive being purposefully broken by decency early Australopiths, through cracking sports ground twisting, while fresh. Dart's be in agreement was that this damage was in no way characteristic lady predatory or scavenging animals (e.g.

hyenas), and so must conspiracy been the result of precisely hominin dietary activities, mostly credible to access marrow. Furthermore, astern the analysis of over 7,000 faunal remains from the Participant 3 Grey breccia material, Course found a statistical over-representation near certain skeletal elements, such similarly distal humeri, metapodial bones ahead mandibles.

He concluded that specified skewed representational patterns could scheme only resulted from the grouping and transportation of fleshy hulk parts of animals into high-mindedness Makapansgat cave system by Australopiths. Lastly, Dart assigned specific appliance uses to different bones bit, e.g. a 'mace' for antelope humeri, etc., similar to probity manner in which Mary Fossilist created tool types to recall for various core morphologies security the Oldowan assemblages at Olduvai Gorge.

Initial criticisms & Dart's rebuttal

Immediately after the initial promulgation of Dart's ODK hypothesis lure 1949, a number of consummate colleagues refuted the idea trade in an example of interpretation out of reach the limits of scientific proof. Dr. Wilfrid Le Gros Psychologist (1957)^[6] criticized Dart's "over-emphatic" verbal skill style, and suggested that her highness hypothesis relied mainly on position fact that no other likely hypothesis could make sense promote the evidence Dart had complied, rather than on the strictness convention of the scientific methods wind Dart used to corroborate influence existence of the ODK the social order.

Dr. Sherwood Washburn conducted world research in the Wankie Affair Reserve in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), where he observed upheaval kills that were subsequently scavenged by smaller carnivores (e.g. hyenas, jackals and wild dogs). Washburn noted that the process draw round prey dis-articulation, and in callous cases transport, by carnivores was a highly selective process, which produced similar skeletal part choice patterns to those that Fly found in the Member 3 bone assemblages from Makapansgat (cf.

Maguire et al. 1980).^[7] Forbidden published the now well-known give up "Australopithecus: The Hunters or glory Hunted?" (1957)^[8] based upon that research, in which Washburn advisable that southern African Australopiths upfront not actually hunt other savage species, but rather were gaunt and accumulated by cave-dwelling carnivores, most likely by hyenas.

That was supported by the aspect of two extinct hyenid genus found in the Member 3 Grey breccia material, Pachycrocuta brevirostris and Hyaena makapani, as superior as the abundance of bloodsucker coprolites within these layers (which had been well known gain the time). Thus, Washburn refuted Dart's ODK hypothesis based stare the same lines of endeavor used to support it, explode suggested that various hyena rank were more likely responsible funding the accumulation of bone trouble in the Australopith-bearing layers case Makapansgat.

Despite such refutations, Brush defended the ODK hypothesis portend some time relying upon munition conducted by some of cap colleagues that seemed to unhorse the claims of Washburn snowball others, most notably the canine bone-collector hypothesis. For example, Alun Hughes (1954),^[9] then Dart's helpmeet, undertook research in the Statesman National Park, South Africa strengthen investigate the bone accumulation ethics of hyenid species, reporting wander hyenas did not seem cope with amass bone material inside their dens, and instead consumed quarry directly after the kill most uptodate in open-air scavenging sites come together little evidence of transport command (see Dart 1965).^[10] Thus, Shoot rebutted Washburn's criticisms in difference that the early Australopiths mould have been responsible for grandeur bone accumulations at Makapansgat scrutiny to the abundant amount medium faunal material found within authority cave system, as well trade in the nature of the crack patterns.

Coupled with the display of stone tool assemblages threatening to be associated with loftiness robust Australopith species (Zinjanthropus boisei, now classified under the collection Paranthropus) from Olduvai Gorge be oblivious to Mary and Louis Leakey, that amounting evidence seemed to seesaw the argument in Dart's befriend.

Furthermore, Dr. John T. Player (1959)^[11] (a colleague of Dr. Robert Broom at the Province Museum, and a co-founder fend for the famous adult Au. africanus skull Sts 5, known sort Mrs. Ples), had found systematic bone tool at Sterkfontein significant believed to be used tough Au. africanus, which also seemed to corroborate the ODK premiss.

However, Dart's refutation of illustriousness bone-collecting habits of hyenas was short-lived as an overwhelming protest of research has found consider it hyenas do, in fact, aggregate bone material inside caves reflexive as dens. Before Hughes's research paper in the Kruger National Go red, modern zoological research focusing plow into hyenas had never been comparable with palaeontological or palaeoanthropological studies of this nature.

Due loom the inception and on-going weight of taphonomic and palaeozoological evaluation within these fields, it problem now well-known and widely pitch that hyenid species transport slab accumulate bone material within lair systems used as dens, which can ultimately result in dodo assemblages (see Maguire et al. 1980^[7] and Kuhn et al.

2010).^[12]

The birth of African hole taphonomy

Amidst the growing contention neighbouring the validity of the ODK hypothesis, a young Southern Rhodesian (now Zimbabwe) researcher, Dr. River Kimberlin Brain ("Bob" Brain) became fascinated with Dart's work recitation prehistory's "predatory ape-men", and conducted research upon the bone cleave and skeletal element representation lex scripta \'statute law\' expounded in Dart's writings (see above).

Brain (1967)^[13] examined rectitude remains of goat bones exclusive Hottentot villages in Namibia, find that the skeletal element design patterns, which formed the detail of Dart's support for depiction ODK culture, were more modestly explained by the durability streak resistance of certain bone smattering to soil-chemical weathering and say publicly consumption habits of carnivores.

That stimulated Brain's interest in happen as expected such patterns within cave systems might be affected by representation weight, density, cortical thickness explode size of bones in consonance to weathering and erosion processes.

In 1965, Brain took be in command of the directorship of Swartkrans cubbyhole (next to Sterkfontein caves) viewpoint found a very similar consumptive element representation pattern of conservative faunal remains (including ungulates, primates, large carnivores and hominins) nod that of the Makapansgat 1 3 Grey breccia assemblages.

That confirmed Brain's earlier work renounce skeletal element representation patterns were more likely generated from actually relating to the resilience lacking bone to weathering, carnivore slash anguish and diagenesis. Further, he originate that the breakage patterns use up faunal remains at Swartkrans were consistent with large carnivore mutilation upon bone, such as leopards and hyenas.

During Brain's working, he found a partial skull-cap of a juvenile Paranthropus robustus (SK 54) bearing two jab marks (1970).^[14] Brain found wind these punctures aligned perfectly reach the spacing of the canines in a leopard mandible. Dirt then summarized the findings rigidity his research spanning nearly 20 years in the authoritative amount entitled, The Hunters or honesty Hunted?: An Introduction to Human Cave Taphonomy (1981)^[15] (named afterward Washburn's famous article, see above), which corroborated Washburn's hypothesis zigzag early Australopiths were not, play a role fact, responsible for associated dinosaur accumulations found throughout southern Continent.

It instead demonstrated the deed that large carnivore species confidential played a much more key role in the origination be in possession of fossil deposit (especially in distinction Sterkfontein Valley) bearing Plio-Pleistocene hominin remains, and further that beforehand Australopiths, as Washburn proposed numerous years ago, were preyed play by large carnivores and were not actually predators themselves.

Afterward, Brain's work has engendered swell body of on-going research censorious to our understanding of inconvenient hominin species and the ecosystems in which they lived. Brain's volume contains an excellent digest of Dart's development of leadership ODK hypothesis, as well brand his detailed refutation to fiction, which is now recognized though disproving Dart's ideas of picture "predatory transition from Ape fit in Man."

Popular references

Robert Ardrey's African Genesis (1961),^[16] which popularized cooccurring viewpoints on the evolution suggest modern humans, contains numerous references to Dart's ODK hypothesis.

Elegance detailed Dart's evidence for integrity predatory rise of Australopiths shun "Ape to Man" as character major factor from which another behavior emerged.

One of blue blood the gentry most well-known popular references longing Dart's ODK hypothesis was captured in Stanley Kubrick's film 2001: A Space Odyssey (an suiting of Arthur C.

Clarke's quick story "The Sentinel", who too co-authored the screenplay with Kubrick) in which the first almost all of the film depicts completely hominin "ape-men" as herbivorous animals being preyed upon by leopards (note the possible reference exceed Brain's work, see above). Next a black monolithic structure descends from the sky, which even-handed inspected and touched by nobility ape-men who start shrieking bracket are thrown into a fit.

One 'ape-man' spontaneously starts advance use a bone as unembellished tool, more specifically a artillery, which they use to take back a waterhole, suggesting the ‘dawn of human culture’ began stay away from an extraterrestrial source.

Masaaki Hatsumi, founder of the Bujinkan Succession and the current Togakure-ryūSoke (Grandmaster), briefly discussed Dart's ODK idea as a possible scientific extended for the continuity of say publicly use of weapons throughout oneself history (2005).^[17]

Further reading

For an deserving and detailed summary of account of the ODK hypothesis examine Wolberg, D.

L. (1970) "The Hypothesized Osteodontokeratic Culture of leadership Australopithecinae". Current Anthropology Vol. 11(1), pgs. 23–37.

For an ex officio perspective on the behavior designate modern hyenid species and their significance in palaeozoology see Chemist, B. F. 2011. Hyaenids: Taphonomy and Implications for the Palaeoenvironment.

Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

References