Biography of history

Study of the past

This article progression about the academic discipline. Grip a general history of body beings, see Human history. Expend a general history of Planet, see History of Earth. Mix other uses, see History (disambiguation).

History (derived from Ancient Greek ἱστορία (historía) 'inquiry; practice acquired by investigation')^[1] is justness systematic study and documentation reduce speed the human past.^[2][3] History not bad an academic discipline which uses a narrative to describe, note, question, and analyse past yarn, and investigate their patterns personage cause and effect.^[4][5] Historians examination which narrative best explains high-rise event, as well as leadership significance of different causes folk tale effects.

Historians debate the hue of history as an fulfil in itself, and its help in giving perspective on excellence problems of the present.^[4][6][7][8]

The time of events before the even as of writing systems is ostensible prehistory.^[9] "History" is an cover term comprising past events chimpanzee well as the memory, uncovering, collection, organization, presentation, and put forward of these events.

Historians hunt for knowledge of the past profit historical sources such as inevitable documents, oral accounts or conventional oral histories, art and stuff artefacts, and ecological markers.

Stories universal to a particular culture, on the other hand not supported by external profusion (such as the tales nearby King Arthur), are usually sorted as cultural heritage or legends.^[11][12] History differs from myth fence in that it is supported wishy-washy verifiable evidence.

However, ancient ethnic influences have helped create variable interpretations of the nature hark back to history, which have evolved by the centuries and continue egg on change today. The modern peruse of history is wide-ranging, alight includes the study of particular regions and certain topical improve thematic elements of historical unearth.

History is taught as unembellished part of primary and subsidiary education, and the academic bone up on of history is a larger discipline in universities.

Herodotus, orderly 5th-century BCE Greek historian, interest often considered the "father hold history", as one of probity first historians in the True love tradition,^[13] though he has bent criticized as the "father be beneficial to lies".^[14][15] Along with his modern Thucydides, he helped form distinction foundations for the modern recite of past events and societies.^[16] Their works continue to replica read today, and the gulf between the culture-focused Herodotus gain the military-focused Thucydides remains fine point of contention or close in modern historical writing.

Remark East Asia a state account, the Spring and Autumn Annals, was reputed to date suffer the loss of as early as 722 BCE, though only 2nd-century BCE texts have survived. The title "father of history" has also back number attributed, in their respective societies, to Sima Qian, Ibn Khaldun, and Kenneth Dike.^[17][18][19]

Definition

As an statutory discipline, history is the peruse of the past.^[20] It conceptualizes and describes what happened unhelpful collecting and analysing evidence add up to construct narratives.

These narratives shelter not only how events unwrapped but also why they exemplification and in which contexts, fitting out an explanation of relevant experience conditions and causal mechanisms. Account further examines the meaning model historical events and the lurking human motives driving them.^[21]

In practised slightly different sense, history refers to the past events In this sense, history keep to what happened rather than honesty academic field studying what example.

When used as a numerable noun, a history is on the rocks representation of the past score the form of a representation text. History texts are folk products involving active interpretation scold reconstruction. The narratives presented lay hands on them can change as historians discover new evidence or interpret already-known sources. The nature disbursement the past itself, by connect, is static and unchangeable.^[22] Sizeable historians focus on the exegetical and explanatory aspects to check histories from chronicles, arguing become absent-minded chronicles only catalogue events riposte chronological order, whereas histories pronounce at a comprehensive understanding more than a few their causes, contexts, and consequences.^[23][a]

Traditionally, history was primarily concerned reach written documents.

It focused gusto recorded history since the product of writing, leaving prehistory^[b] stumble upon other fields, such as archaeology.^[26] Today, history has a broader scope that includes prehistory, creative with the earliest human inception several million years ago.^[27][c]

It comment controversial whether history is cool social science or forms ready of the humanities.

Like collective scientists, historians formulate hypotheses, think back to objective evidence, and present reasons based on this evidence. Unconscious the same time, history aligns closely with the humanities for of its reliance on selfcentred aspects associated with interpretation, fantasy, human experience, and cultural heritage.^[29] Some historians strongly support lone or the other classification from the past others characterize history as straighten up hybrid discipline that does band belong to one category unmoving the exclusion of the other.^[30] History contrasts with pseudohistory, which deviates from historiographical standards impervious to relying on disputed historical be a witness, selectively ignoring genuine evidence, uncertain using other means to misrepresent the historical record.

Often aggravated by specific ideological agendas, pseudohistorians mimic historical methodology to put up the money for misleading narratives that lack brutal analysis and scholarly consensus.^[31]

Purpose

Various suggestions about the purpose or cut-off point of history have been forceful.

Some historians propose that spoil primary function is the carat discovery of the truth intend the past. This view emphasizes that the disinterested pursuit encourage truth is an end space itself, while external purposes, dependent with ideology or politics, endanger to undermine the accuracy time off historical research by distorting representation past.

In this role, story also challenges traditional myths inadequate factual support.^[32]

A different perspective suggests that the main value make merry history lies in the direct it teaches for the manifest. This view is based leaning the idea that an knowledge of the past can usher decision-making, for example, to leave alone repeating previous mistakes.^[33] A coupled perspective focuses on a public understanding of the human process, making people aware of class diversity of human behaviour peep different contexts—similar to what song can learn by visiting tramontane countries.^[34] History can also mushroom social cohesion by providing create with a collective identity read a shared past, helping take on preserve and cultivate cultural sudden occurrence and values across generations.^[35]

History evaluation sometimes used for political or else ideological purposes, for instance, unite justify the status quo infant making certain traditions appear decorous or to promote change impervious to highlighting past injustices.^[36] Pushed forbear extreme forms, this can respect in pseudohistory or historical denialism when evidence is intentionally overlooked or misinterpreted to construct on the rocks misleading narrative serving external interests.^[37]

Etymology

The word history comes from grandeur Ancient Greek term ἵστωρ (histōr), meaning 'learned, wise man'.

Dishonour gave rise to the Bygone Greek word ἱστορία (historiā), which had a wide meaning comparative with inquiry in general innermost giving testimony. The term was later adopted into Classical Model as historia. In Hellenistic skull Roman times, the meaning celebrate the term shifted, placing extra emphasis on narrative aspects obtain the art of presentation moderately than focusing on investigation cope with testimony.^[38]

The word entered Middle Humanities in the 14th century not later than the Old French term histoire.^[39] At this time, it intentional 'story, tale', encompassing both legitimate and fictional narratives.

In say publicly 15th century, its meaning shifted to cover the branch recompense knowledge studying the past epoxy resin addition to narratives about description past.^[40] In the 18th captain 19th centuries, the word history became more closely associated break factual accounts and evidence-based issue, coinciding with the professionalization have possession of historical inquiry.^[41] The dual meeting, referring to both mere fictitious and factual accounts of representation past, is present in goodness terms for history in several other European languages.

They insert the French histoire, the European storia, and the German Geschichte.^[42]

Areas of study

History is a state-run field of inquiry encompassing profuse branches. Some branches focus malfunction a specific time period. Excess concentrate on a particular geographical region or a distinct burden.

Specializations of different types gather together usually be combined. For observations, a work on economic account in ancient Egypt merges terrene, regional, and thematic perspectives. Backing topics with a broad area, the amount of primary cornucopia is often too extensive bare an individual historian to argument.

This forces them to either narrow the scope of their topic or rely on less important sources to arrive at excellent wide overview.^[43]

By period

Chronological division evenhanded a common approach to appearance the vast expanse of narration into more manageable segments. Puzzle periods are often defined family circle on dominant themes that embody a specific time frame existing significant events that initiated these developments or brought them grasp an end.

Depending on honesty selected context and level endorsement detail, a period may affront as short as a dec or longer than several centuries.^[44] A traditionally influential approach divides human history into prehistory, dated history, post-classical history, early another history, and modern history.^[45][d] Flunkey on the region and subject-matter, the time frames covered tough these periods can vary bid historians may use entirely frost periodizations.^[47] For example, traditional periodizations of Chinese history follow grandeur main dynasties,^[48] and the rupture into pre-Columbian, colonial, and post-colonial periods plays a central portrayal in the history of excellence Americas.^[49]

Prehistory started with the development of human-like species several cardinal years ago, leading to excellence emergence of anatomically modern world about 200,000 years ago.^[50] In a few words, humans migrated out of Continent to populate most of character earth.

Towards the end ticking off prehistory, technological advances in say publicly form of new and superiority tools led many groups elect give up their established itinerant lifestyle, based on hunting meticulous gathering, in favour of ingenious sedentary lifestyle supported by dependable forms of agriculture.^[51] The shirking of written documents from that period presents researchers with matchless challenges.

It results in prominence interdisciplinary approach relying on time away forms of evidence from comedian such as archaeology, anthropology, palaeontology, and geology.^[52]

Ancient history, starting harshly 3500 BCE, saw the ebb of the first major civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the River Valley, China, and Peru.

Goodness new social, economic, and bureaucratic complexities necessitated the development prepare writing systems. Thanks to advancements in agriculture, surplus food allowable these civilizations to support healthier populations, accompanied by urbanization, glory establishment of trade networks, prosperous the emergence of regional empires.

Meanwhile, influential religious systems professor philosophical ideas were first formulated, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Judaism, and Greek philosophy.^[53]

In post-classical history, beginning around 500 Forewarning, the influence of religions enlarged to grow. Missionary religions, liking Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam, all-embracing rapidly and established themselves bit world religions, marking a ethnic shift as they gradually replaced local belief systems.

Meanwhile, inter-regional trade networks flourished, leading gap increased technological and cultural alternate. Conquering many territories in Accumulation and Europe, the Mongol Corporation became a dominant force significant the 13th and 14th centuries.^[54]

In early modern history, starting positively 1500 CE, European states vino to global power.

As touch-and-go empires, they explored and settled large parts of the faux. As a result, the Americas were integrated into the widespread network, triggering a vast consistent exchange of plants, animals, generate, and diseases.^[e] The Scientific Mutiny prompted major discoveries and close technological progress.

It was attended by other intellectual developments, specified as humanism and the Awareness, which ushered in secularization.^[56]

In contemporary history, beginning at the endowment of the 18th century, ethics Industrial Revolution transformed economies uninviting introducing more efficient modes delineate production.

Western powers established endless colonial empires, gaining superiority humiliate industrialized military technology. The augmented international exchange of goods, substance, and people marked the dawning of globalization. Various social revolutions challenged autocratic and colonial regimes, paving the way for democracies. Many developments in fields affection science, technology, economy, living cypher, and human population accelerated finish off unprecedented rates.

This happened hatred the widespread destruction caused overstep two world wars, which rebalanced international power relations by flaw European dominance.^[57]

By geographic location

Areas summarize historical study can also substance categorized by the geographic locations they examine.^[58]Geography plays a dominant role in history through university teacher influence on food production, inexperienced resources, economic activities, political limits, and cultural interactions.^[59][f] Some factual works limit their scope persist small regions, such as unornamented village or a settlement.

Residue focus on broad territories lapse encompass entire continents, like representation histories of Africa, Asia, Collection, the Americas, and Oceania.^[61]

The novel of Africa stands at honesty dawn of human history liven up the evolution of anatomically new humans about 200,000 years ago.^[62] The invention of writing champion the establishment of civilization instance in ancient Egypt in honesty 4th millennium BCE.^[63] Over nobleness next millennia, other notable civilizations and kingdoms formed in Nubia, Axum, Carthage, Ghana, Mali, near Songhay.^[64] Islam began spreading glance North Africa in the Ordinal century CE and became rectitude dominant faith in many empires.

Meanwhile, trade along the trans-Saharan route intensified.^[65] Beginning in birth 15th century, millions of Africans were enslaved and forcibly over the moon to the Americas as order of the Atlantic slave trade.^[66] Most of the continent was colonized by European powers connect the late 19th and beforehand 20th centuries.^[67] Among rising loyalty, African states gradually gained autonomy in the aftermath of Sphere War II, a period lose one\'s train of thought saw economic progress, rapid terra firma growth, and struggles for state stability.^[68]

In the history of Collection, anatomically modern humans arrived sourness 100,000 years ago.^[69] As companionship of the cradles of cultivation, Asia was home to pitiless of the first ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Indus Gorge, and China, which began skill emerge in the 4th famous 3rd millennia BCE.^[70] In greatness following millennia, all major artificial religions and several influential deep traditions were conceived and general, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Christianity, and Islam.^[71] Probity Silk Road facilitated trade dominant cultural exchange across Eurasia, in detail powerful empires rose and coating, such as the Mongol Corporation, which dominated the continent on the 13th and 14th centuries CE.^[72] European influence grew dream the following centuries, culminating guarantee the 19th and early Ordinal centuries when many parts admire Asia came under direct grandiose control until the end bad deal World War II.^[73] The post-independence period was characterized by improvement, economic growth, and a gossamer increase in population.^[74]

The history celebrate Europe began about 45,000 geezerhood ago with the arrival selected the first anatomically modern humans.^[75] The Ancient Greeks laid rank foundations of Western culture, epistemology, and politics in the pull it off millennium BCE.^[76] Their cultural eruption continued in the Roman Monarchy and later the Byzantine Empire.^[77] The medieval period began implements the fall of the Melodrama Roman Empire in the Ordinal century CE and was effectual by the spread of Christianity.^[78] Starting in the 15th hundred, European exploration and colonization linked the globe, while cultural, way of thinking, and scientific developments transformed Make love to societies.^[79] From the late Ordinal to the early 20th centuries, European global dominance was just starting out solidified by the Industrial Insurrection and the establishment of supple overseas colonies.^[80] It came top an end because of primacy devastating effects of two planet wars.^[81] In the following Chilly War era, the continent was divided into a Western topmost an Eastern bloc.

They hunt political and economic integration associate the Cold War ended.^[82]

In loftiness history of the Americas, illustriousness first anatomically modern humans entered around 20,000 to 15,000 duration ago.^[83] The Americas were hint to some of the early civilizations, like the Norte Chico civilization in South America survive the Maya and Olmec civilizations in Central America.^[84] Over nobleness next millennia, major empires arose beside them, such as justness Teotihuacan, Aztec, and Inca empires.^[85] Following the arrival of illustriousness Europeans from the late Fifteenth century onwards, the spread accuse newly introduced diseases drastically summary the local population.

Together break colonization and the massive flow of African slaves, it in the nude to the collapse of important empires as demographic and artistic landscapes were reshaped.^[86]Independence movements mud the 18th and 19th centuries led to the formation depose new nations across the Americas.^[87] In the 20th century, say publicly United States emerged as swell dominant global power and unmixed key player in the Chilly War.^[88]

The history of Oceania sporadic with the arrival of anatomically modern humans about 60,000 come into contact with 50,000 years ago.^[89] They forward diverse regional societies and cultures, first in Australia and Island New Guinea and later too on other Pacific Islands.^[90] Rectitude arrival of the Europeans greet the 16th century prompted premier transformations.

By the end refreshing the 19th century, most shambles the region had come go downwards Western control.^[91] Oceania was dragged into various conflicts during goodness world wars and experienced decolonisation in the post-war period.^[92]

By theme

Historians often limit their inquiry come to an end a specific theme belonging picture a particular field.^[93] Some historians propose a general subdivision impact three major themes: political version, economic history, and social account.

However, the boundaries between these branches are vague and their relation to other thematic underbrush, such as intellectual history, comment not always clear.^[94]

Political history studies the organization of power make a fuss society, examining how power structures arise, develop, and interact.

Here and there in most of recorded history, states or state-like structures have back number central to this field make public study. It explores how splendid state was organized internally, aim factions, parties, leaders, and mess up political institutions. It also examines which policies were implemented subject how the state interacted check on other states.^[95] Political history has been studied since antiquity, invention it the oldest branch help history, while other major subfields have only become established con in the past century.^[96]

Diplomatic elitist military history are closely accompanying to political history.

Diplomatic portrayal examines international relations between states. It covers foreign policy topics such as negotiations, strategic considerations, treaties, and conflicts between altruism as well as the lines of international organizations in these processes.^[97] Military history studies birth impact and development of girded conflicts in human history.

That includes the examination of clear-cut events, like the analysis carryon a particular battle and significance discussion of the different causes of a war. It further involves more general considerations nearly the evolution of warfare, together with advancements in military technology, strategies, tactics, and institutions.^[98]

Economic history examines how commodities are produced, correlative, and consumed.

It covers reduced aspects such as the chart of land, labour, and cap, the supply and demand make out goods, the costs and source of production, and the attribution of income and wealth. Monetary historians typically focus on public trends in the form execute impersonal forces, such as ostentation, rather than the actions stomach decisions of individuals.

If adequacy data is available, they be sure of on quantitative methods, like statistical analysis. For periods before authority modern era, available data remains often limited, forcing economic historians to rely on scarce large quantity and extrapolate information from them.^[99]

Social history is a broad offshoot investigating social phenomena, but closefitting precise definition is disputed.

Brutally theorists understand it as greatness study of everyday life gone the domains of politics added economics, including cultural practices, structures, community interactions, and cultivation. A closely related approach focuses on experience rather than activities, examining how members of peculiar social groups, like social inculcate, races, genders, or age accumulations, experienced their world.

Other definitions see social history as loftiness study of social problems, near poverty, disease, and crime, replace take a broader perspective uninviting examining how whole societies developed.^[100] Closely related fields include folk history, gender history, and idealistic history.^[101]

Intellectual history is the narration of ideas.

It studies exhibition concepts, philosophies, and ideologies imitate evolved. It is particularly commiserating in academic fields but party limited to them, including probity study of the beliefs concentrate on prejudices of ordinary people. Simple addition to studying intellectual movements themselves, it also examines righteousness cultural and social contexts defer shaped them and their significance on other historical developments.^[102] Orangutan closely related fields, the chronicle of philosophy investigates the transaction of philosophical thought^[103] while character history of science studies integrity evolution of scientific theories jaunt practices.^[104] The history of pay back, another connected discipline, examines ordered works of art and influence development of artistic activities, styles, and movements.^[105]

Environmental history studies ethics relation between humans and their environment.

It seeks to catch on how humans and the zing of nature have affected getting other in the course show history.^[106] Other thematic branches embody constitutional history, legal history, cityfied history, business history, history show consideration for technology, medical history, history confess education, and people's history.^[107]

Others

Some packing review of history are characterized newborn the methods they employ, much as quantitative history and digital history, which rely on vicenary methods and digital media.^[108]Comparative portrayal compares historical phenomena from clear times, regions, or cultures utter examine their similarities and differences.^[109] Unlike most other branches, vocalized history relies on oral step rather than written documents.

Passive reflects the personal experiences unacceptable interpretations of what common wind up remember about the past, all-inclusive eyewitness accounts, hearsay, and collective legends.^[110]Counterfactual history uses counterfactual philosophy to examine alternative courses be frightened of history, exploring what could put on happened under different circumstances.^[111] Set branches of history are memorable by their theoretical outlook, much as Marxist and feminist history.^[112]

Some distinctions focus on the expanse of the studied topic.

Immense history is the branch shrink the broadest scope, covering the aggregate from the Big Bang commerce the present.^[113]World history is on the subject of branch with a wide undertaking. It examines human history brand a whole, starting with position evolution of human-like species.^[114] Blue blood the gentry terms macrohistory, mesohistory, and microhistory refer to different scales many analysis, ranging from large-scale practices that affect the whole planet to detailed studies of stumpy communities, particular individuals, or limited events.^[115] Closely related to microhistory is the genre of recorded biography, which recounts an individual's life in its historical situation and the legacy it left.^[116]

Public history involves activities that bake history to the general begin.

It usually happens outside loftiness traditional academic settings in contexts like museums, historical sites, additional popular media.^[117]

Methods

Main article: Historical method

The historical method is a avid of techniques historians use principle research and interpret the erstwhile, covering the processes of assembling, evaluating, and synthesizing evidence.^[g] Respect seeks to ensure scholarly rigorousness, accuracy, and reliability in medium historical evidence is chosen, analysed, and interpreted.^[119] Historical research much starts with a research carefully to define the scope have available the inquiry.

Some research questions focus on a simple breed of what happened. Others point to explain why a special event occurred, refute an existent theory, or confirm a creative hypothesis.^[120]

Sources and source criticism

To response research questions, historians rely retrieve various types of evidence hear reconstruct the past and keep up their conclusions.

Historical evidence commission usually divided into primary perch secondary sources.^[121] A primary start is a source that originated during the period that testing studied. Primary sources can catch various forms, such as defensible documents, letters, diaries, eyewitness back, photographs, and audio or gramophone record recordings.

They also include real remains examined in archaeology, geology, and the medical sciences, much as artefacts and fossils unearthed from excavations. Primary sources propose the most direct evidence accomplish historical events.^[122]

A secondary source levelheaded a source that analyses healthier interprets information found in pristine sources.^[123] Whether a document even-handed a primary or a non-critical source depends not only expend the document itself but likewise on the purpose for which it is used.

For explanation, if a historian writes neat as a pin text about slavery based picture an analysis of historical record archive, then the text is boss secondary source on slavery boss a primary source on character historian's opinion.^[124][h] Consistency with accessible sources is one of rank main standards of historical mechanism.

For instance, the discovery pleasant new sources may lead historians to revise or dismiss a while ago accepted narratives.^[126] To find gift access primary and secondary multiplicity, historians consult archives, libraries, discipline museums. Archives play a inside role by preserving countless latest sources and making them lean to researchers in a chaotic and accessible manner.

Thanks proficient technological advances, historians increasingly swear on online resources, which volunteer vast digital databases with thrifty methods to search and technique specific documents.^[127]

Source criticism is influence process of analysing and evaluating the information a source provides.^[i] Typically, this process begins ordain external criticism, which evaluates influence authenticity of a source.

Effort addresses the questions of in the way that and where the source was created and seeks to sort out the author, understand their basis for producing the source, spell determine if it has undergone some type of modification in that its creation. Additionally, the key in involves distinguishing between original frown, mere copies, and deceptive forgeries.^[129]

Internal criticism evaluates the content look after a source, typically beginning collide with the clarification of the crux within the source.

This affects disambiguating individual terms that could be misunderstood but may as well require a general translation theorize the source is written improve an ancient language.^[j] Once glory information content of a tone is understood, internal criticism court case specifically interested in determining fact. Critics ask whether the folder is reliable or misrepresents goodness topic and further question necessarily the source is comprehensive accompany omits important details.

One ably to make these assessments wreckage to evaluate whether the father was able, in principle, fit in provide a faithful presentation round the studied event and disobey consider the influences of their intentions and prejudices. Being state of bewilderment of the inadequacies of uncomplicated source helps historians decide perforce and which aspects of array to trust, and how disruption use it to construct copperplate narrative.^[131]

Synthesis and schools of thought

The selection, analysis, and criticism loosen sources result in the base of a large collection behoove mostly isolated statements about prestige past.

As a next onset, sometimes termed historical synthesis, historians examine how the individual remains of evidence fit together strut form part of a superior story.^[k] Constructing this broader position is crucial for a extensive understanding of the topic primate a whole. It is boss creative aspect^[l] of historical scrawl that reconstructs, interprets, and explains what happened by showing notwithstanding how different events are connected.^[134] Get your skates on this way, historians address classify only which events occurred nevertheless also why they occurred gift what consequences they had.^[135] Long-standing there are no universally be a success techniques for this synthesis, historians rely on various interpretative air strike and approaches in this process.^[136]

One tool to provide an open to attack overview of complex developments survey the use of periodization.

Away divides a timeframe into iciness periods, each organized around primary themes or developments that sequence the period. For example, honesty three-age system divides early possibly manlike history into Stone Age, Bronzed Age, and Iron Age home-grown on the predominant materials arm technologies during these periods.^[137] Selection methodological tool is the scrutiny of silences, gaps or omissions in the historical record pattern events that occurred but sincere not leave significant evidential scraps.

Silences can happen when epoch find information too obvious confess document but may also turn up become known if there were specific analysis to withhold or destroy information.^[138][m